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Writing Tips: APA
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What is APA?
APA stands for the American Psychological Association. The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, Fifth Edition, is prepared and published for members of the APA, and it is the preferred style manual of many journals and academic departments outside the field of psychology. This on-line handout is an introduction to the APA style of documentation, but it should not serve to replace the manual. The APA style manual is available at most bookstores, and a copy is available for student use in the Writing Center. Additionally, the APA sponsors its own website that remains a valuable supplementary resource for students learning to master APA style. It is especially helpful for questions regarding the citation of on-line sources.
Formatting Your Paper in APA Style
As with most systems of documentation, you must pay close attention to the format guidelines for preparing articles for publication in an APA journal or for writing papers using the APA style. Keep in mind, however, that individual assignments may not require some elements of the APA format, such as the abstract or the methods sections. In theses and dissertations the following sections are treated as chapters.
Title Page
The APA manuscript begins with a title page. The title page includes the title of the manuscript and the author’s name and affiliation (Howard Giles, University of Nevada, Las Vegas). The title page also includes the running head -- an abbreviation of the title normally located at the top of each page in a published article. It should not exceed 50 characters in length. In APA format, page numbering begins with the title page and continues consecutively through the remainder of the manuscript.
Abstract
An abstract is a condensed, comprehensive summary of the manuscript (see our "How to Write an Abstract/Prospectus" for further help). A heading, usually level 1 (see Headings below), is the first line of the abstract page. The abstract explains the nature of the research conducted, the hypotheses put forth, and the methods utilized. It ends by stating the conclusions or findings of the research. Many abstracts are published apart from their full manuscripts, so the writer should take care to ensure that the reader understands the nature of all variables, how they were manipulated and measured, and the nature of the results, simply by reading the abstract. The abstract should be limited to 960 characters or 120 words. Moreover, the length and detail of an abstract are largely determined by the nature of the manuscript. For instance, an abstract of a book review may only be 75-100 words, while the abstract for an article may be longer.
Introduction
The introduction begins on the page immediately following the abstract. In longer works, the introduction is often a section or an entire chapter in the manuscript. The introduction serves to state the problem, as well as the purpose and rationale of the study and its methods. Because of its position at the start of the text, you do not need to use a heading for the introduction.
Methods
The methods section is a detailed account of the steps taken by the researcher. Term papers rarely include a methods section; instead, headings indicating the major subtopics supporting the thesis statement are used. In a scientific inquiry, the methods section is comprised of a detailed description of the participants, the independent and dependent variables, and all apparatus employed.
Results
In the results section, the researcher describes the data generated from the methods. In a term paper, the results section--similar to the methods section--is often replaced with headings indicating subtopics supporting the thesis. In a scientific manuscript, tables, figures, any statistical presentations, effect sizes and the significance of the data are presented in the results section.
Discussion
In the discussion section, the researcher describes how the data presented in the results section relates to the findings of previous studies. In a term paper, the discussion section may be labeled Conclusions and treated like a traditional concluding paragraph. In both term papers and scientific manuscripts, the discussion section gives the writer an opportunity to elaborate on the significance of his or her findings and the direction further studies should take.
References
The reference section is an alphabetically arranged list of books, journals, and online sources cited in the manuscript. The clear and accurate presentation of sources encourages the organized pursuit of knowledge and facilitates the research process of future studies. The reference section begins on a new page. Remember, however, that the reference section should still be double-spaced, and page-numbering continues consecutively from the final page of the main body of the manuscript.
Reference Citations
Books
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Example
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Formula
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One Author
Goldstein, J. E. (1960). In a word. New York:
Harper & Row.
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Last name, Initials. (Year Published). Title in Italics. City Published:
Publisher.
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Two or More Authors
Strunk, W., Jr., & White, E. B. (1979). The elements of style (3rd ed.). New York: Macmillian.
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Last name, Initials., Last name, Initials. (Year
Published). Title in Italics. City
Published: Publisher.
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Edited
Griffith, J. W., & Frey, C. H. (Eds.). (1996). Classics of children’s literature (4th
ed.). Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Prentice Hall.
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Last name, Initials. (Ed/Eds.). (Year Published). Title in Italics. City Published:
Publisher.
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No Author or Editor
American
collegiate dictionary (4th ed.). (1995). Indianapolis, IN:
Huntsfield.
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Title in
Italics. (Year Published). City Published: Publisher.
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Article or Chapter in an Edited Book
Riesen, A. H. (1991). Sensory deprivation. In E.
Stellar & J. M. Sprague (Eds.), Progress
in physiological psychology (pp. 24-54). New York: Academic Press.
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Last Name of Article Author, Initials. (Year
Published). Article Title. In Initial. Last Name of Book Editor (Ed./Eds.), Title of book in Italics (pp. pages of
article in book). City Published: Publisher.
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Translation
Zhou, W. (2001). Shanghai
Baby (B. Humes, Trans.). New
York: Simon & Schuster. (Original work
published 1999)
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Original Author’s Last Name, Initials. (Year
Translation Published). Title in
Italics. (Initials, Translator’s Last Name). City Published: Publisher.
(Original work published YEAR)
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Article in a Reference Book
Terusami, H. T. (1993). Relativity. In The new handbook of science (Vol. 12, pp.
247-249). Chicago:
Modern Science Encyclopedia
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Last Name of Article Author, Initials. (Year
Published). Article Title. In Title of
reference book (Vol. #, pp. page-page). City Published: Publisher.
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Periodicals
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Example
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Formula
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Article in a Journal Paginated by Volume
Morawski, J. (2000). Social psychology a century ago. American Psychologist, 55, 427-431.
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Last name, Initials. (Year Published). Title of
Article in Plain Text. Journal Title in
Italics, Volume#, Page-Page.
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Article in a Journal Paginated by Issue
Klimoski, R., & Palmer, S. (1993). The ADA and the hiring
process in organizations. Consulting
Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 45(2), 10-36.
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Last name, Initials. (Year Published). Title of
Article in Plain Text. Journal Title in
Italics, Volume#(Issue#),
Page-Page.
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Article in a Journal Paginated Continuously
Schaubroeck, J., Sime, W. E., & Mayes, B. T. (1991).
The nomological validity of the Type A personality. Journal of Applied Psychology, 76, 143-168.
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Last name, Initials. (Year Published). Title of
Article in Plain Text. Journal Title in
Italics, Volume#, Page-Page.
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Article in a Newspaper
Leftlow, B. S. (1993, December 18). Corporate
take-overs confuse stock market predictions. Wall Street Journal, pp. A1, A14.
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Last name, Initials. (Year, Month Day). Title of
Article in Plain Text. Newspaper Title
in Italics, pp. #.
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Letter to the Editor
Carter, R. (2000, July). Shot in the dark? [Letter to
the editor]. Scientific American, 283(1),
8.
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Last name, Initials. (Year, Month). Title of Article
in Plain Text. [Letter to the editor]. Journal
Title in Italics, Volume#(Issue#), Page-Page.
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Review
Gleick, E. (2000, December 14). The burdens of genius [Review
of the book The Last Samurai]. Time, 156, 171.
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Last name, Initials. (Year, Month Day). Title of
Article in Plain Text [Review of the book Title
of the Book in Italics]. Journal
Title in Italics, Volume#,
Page.
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Electronic Citations
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Example
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Formula
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Article from an Online Periodical – Article also in
Print
Gefen, D., Straub, D. W. (1997, December). Gender
differences in the perception and use of E-mail: an extension to the
technology acceptance model [Electronic version]. MIS Quarterly, 21(4), 389-400.
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Last name, Initials. (Year, Month). Title of Article
in Plain Text [Electronic version]. Journal
Title in Italics, Volume#,
Page-Page.
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Article from an Online Periodical – Online-only
Klimoski, R., & Palmer, S. (1993). The ADA and the hiring
process in organizations. Consulting
Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 45(2), 10-36.
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Last name, Initials. (Year Published). Title of
Article in Plain Text. Journal Title in
Italics, Volume#(Issue#),
Page-Page.
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Chapter or Section in a Web Document
Heuer, R. J., Jr. (1999). Keeping an open mind. In Psychology of intelligence analysis (chap.
6). Retrieved July 7, 2001, from http://www.cia.gov/
csi/books/19104/art9.html
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Last name, Initials. (Year of Article). Title of
Article in Plain Text. In Title of
Online Periodical in Italic (chap. #). Retrieved Month Day, Year, from
http://address
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Online Newspaper Article
Berke, R. L. (2001, July 14). Lieberman put Democrats
in retreat on military vote. New York
Times. Retrieved July 18, 2001, from http://www.nytimes.com
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Last name, Initials. (Year, Month Day). Title of
Article in Plain Text. Newspaper Title
in Italics. Retrieved Month Day, Year, from http://address
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U.S.
Government and Other Organization Reports Available on the Web
(Nonperiodical)
National Institutes of Health. (n.d.). Stem cells:
Scientific progress and future research. Retrieved July 19, 2001, from http://www.nih.gov/news/stemcell/
scireport.htm
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Note: (n.d.) means No Date
Last name, Initials. (Year, Month). Title of Article
in Plain Text. Retrieved Month Day, Year, from http://address
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Electronic Database
Center for Public Policy Study. (1994). Survey of public response to terrorism
abroad: 1992-93. Retrieved October 20, 1994, from USGOV database.
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Note: Here
there is no individual as an author.
Instead, the author is marked as a group.
Last name, Initials. (Year). Title of Article in Italics: Year. Retrieved Month Day, Year,
from Database Name.
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In-Text Citations
Anyone familiar with other style manuals, for instance MLA or Chicago, will notice the unique format of an APA in-text reference. In-text references enable your readers to quickly and easily locate the information and research used in your study. To avoid plagiarism (see our "Avoiding Plagiarism" handout for further assistance), care should be taken to document your sources carefully and thoroughly. A few of the basic rules and situations are explained below. As always, you should consult the APA manual or website for more detailed assistance.
A Work with One Author
APA employs the author-date format when making in-text citations. This approach comes in three varieties. The author can either be included in the text itself with the date in parentheses, as in Example #1 below; both the author and date can be included in parentheses, as in Example #2; or both the author and date can be included in the text, as in Example #3.
- EXAMPLE #1: Jones (1986) discovered that academic success in young children . . .
- EXAMPLE #2: In a landmark study of academic success in young children (Jones, 1986), it was found that . . .
- EXAMPLE #3: In 1986 Jones discovered . . .
When both the author and date are in parentheses, they are separated by a comma. Further references to the same study (e.g. a work by multiple authors) within the same paragraph follow different parenthetical notation (see below).
A Work with Multiple Authors
If a work has two authors, both names must be listed each time the source is cited in the text. Any of the three basic varieties explained above can be used.
- EXAMPLE: Rodriguez and Martin (1993) found . . .
If a work has three, four, or five authors, all authors should be cited the first time the source appears in the text.
- EXAMPLE: Williams, Kim, Johnson and Davies (1997) found . . .
Subsequent references within the same paragraph should include the first name and the words et al. (with a period). You do not need to list the year.
- EXAMPLE: Williams et al. found . . . [same paragraph, subsequent citation]
In each new paragraph throughout the paper, the reference is reintroduced when necessary by including the first name, the words et al. (with a period), and the year (in parentheses).
- EXAMPLE: Williams et al. (1997) found . . . [new paragraph following the paragraph with initial citation]
Two or More Works in the Same Citation
Occasionally you will have need to cite more than one work in the same reference. When citing works by different authors, sources in parentheses should appear in alphabetical order according to the primary author's last name, and they should be separated by semi-colons (;), as in the example below. For other variations on referencing two or more works in the same citation, we recommend consulting the APA manual directly.
- EXAMPLE: Numerous studies (Garvey, 1979; Johnson & Davies, 1995; Martini, 1998) have indicated . . .
Citing a Specific Portion of a Text
Many times you will simply want to refer to a particular passage in a given text rather than citing the work as a whole. For example, you may choose to quote the source directly, or you may decide to paraphrase an author's ideas. When citing a specific portion of a text, the first citation of a paragraph requires the author's name, the date of publication, and the page on which the quoted or paraphrased information can be found. There are, however, three styles of citation from which you can choose.
Style #1: The first approach to quoting material directly utilizes an introductory phrase such as "She stated," followed by opening quotation marks and the quotation itself. All source information is placed in parentheses at the conclusion of the quote, subsequent to the closing quotation marks but prior to the final period. The information in the parentheses is separated by commas, and the word "page" is abbreviated as "p." (with a period).
- EXAMPLE: She stated, "A high level of parental involvement during the early years of a child's schooling correlates directly to an increased degree of academic success in later grades" (Jones, 1986, p. 143).
Style #2: The second approach allows you to cite the author and year at the start of the quotation (similar to the fashion discussed above in A Work with One Author), and to place the page number at the end. The year is placed in parentheses following the author's name, and the page number is also placed in parentheses at the conclusion of the quote. The page number is subsequent to the closing quotation marks but prior to the final period.
- EXAMPLE: Jones (1986) found that "a high level of parental involvement during the early years of a child's schooling correlates directly to an increased degree of academic success in later grades" (p. 143).
Style #3: The third style is reserved solely for block quotes -- quotes consisting of 40 words or more. Block quotes begin on a new line and should be indented five spaces. Do not use quotation marks. All subsequent lines in the quote should be indented flush with the first indented line. The page number should be placed in parentheses at the conclusion of the quote, subsequent to the final period.
- EXAMPLE: Jones (1986) discovered the following: A high level of parental involvement during the early years of a child's schooling correlates directly to an increased degree of academic success in later grades. Moreover, children whose parents spent regular time reading to them consistently scored higher on standardized tests. Such children also demonstrated greater imaginative capabilities and, interestingly, more developed social skills. (p. 143)
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