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Writing Tips: Research Papers
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Research Papers
So
you have to write a research paper? What dread the
words alone can cause for student writers. However, although a research paper is
always a lot of work, it doesn’t have to be drudgery. At its best, a research
paper can be the end product of an exciting process of discovery.
Research
is far too complex a process to discuss in full detail here, especially because
of the differences between the various disciplines, but these general principles
should help make writing research papers a more meaningful and interesting
experience. (The order here is roughly the order in which the steps should be
completed, but research is not an exact science. Combine or repeat these steps
as necessary.)
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Begin
with a research question rather than merely a topic.
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Identify
effective sources of information.
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Search
for preliminary information early so there is time to refocus your paper if
necessary.
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Draft
a tentative thesis based on your preliminary research, not on your personal
bias or expectations.
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Conduct
more detailed research to confirm, refine, or contradict your thesis.
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Write
the paper.
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Begin
with a research question rather than merely a topic.
Too many students choose
topics that they know a lot about, thinking that will make research easier, but
often, it only makes the research process boring. Instead of merely choosing a
topic, ask yourself, “What do I want to know about my topic?” Starting with
a question instead of a topic has four main benefits:
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It makes
the research process more meaningful. Instead of looking for the “required”
number of sources, you will be looking for information about your subject that
you want to know.
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It helps to
prevent biased research. When we start with an opinion instead of a question, we
may overlook important information because it doesn’t fit our preconceived
expectations.
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It
simplifies the drafting process since the answer to your question will
eventually become your thesis. Just like shorter essays, research papers should
also have a thesis, or controlling idea, to give the paper focus or unity. The
relevance of your information will be easier to determine because you can ask
yourself, “Does this information help to answer my question?”
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It produces
a better paper. It is usually
easier to report research findings than it is to find convincing evidence
to support a previously held opinion.
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Identify
effective sources of information.
When answering the question,
“Where should I look for my information?” don’t limit yourself to either the
library or the Internet. Although most research will take you to one or both
of those sources, depending on the type of information you need, both will not
be equally effective, and sometimes it may be more useful to conduct field research
such as surveys or interviews. Ask yourself, “Where am
I most likely to find the answer to my question?” Some answers to this
question might be found in:
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Instructors:
Instructors can be a valuable
resource at this stage. They will know the most widely used resources in their
respective fields and may even know of specific resources that address the
issues that you are exploring. Any guidelines that they have given you (i.e. a
certain number of journals, no more than one Internet source, etc.) are likely
based on their research experience and designed to help you be more effective.
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The
Internet/library: In general, the Internet is
more effective for current information and popular culture while the library is
still a better resource for scholarly articles, Of course, that may change as
the Internet continues to grow.
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Other
resources: Other times, field research and/or interviews
may be a better way to find the information that you seek, especially if you are
exploring a narrow issue that has not been previously researched by others.
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Search for
preliminary information early so that there will be time to refocus your paper
if necessary.
Too often, students
procrastinate too long, do the research right before the paper is due, and lock
themselves into poor topics.
There are two kinds of poor
topics:
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You find
the answer too easily, either because one source answers your question
completely or because multiple sources all say the same thing. In this
situation, your paper is likely to turn into a cut-and-paste job of quotes,
paraphrases, and summaries. Solve this problem by adding depth to your question.
Maybe you found the what,
where, or when to answer your question, but what about the why
or the how? Find an angle that you can make your own.
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You can’t find the information necessary to answer your question. That
doesn’t mean that the question wasn’t worthwhile, but you need to be realistic
in your expectations. Some questions are either so broad or so narrow
that they require a lifetime of study, and you probably have less than
a semester. Solve this problem by redefining your question in light of
the information that is available. You may not have found the answer to
your original question, but what questions and answers did you discover
along the way?
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Draft a tentative
thesis based on your preliminary research, not on your personal bias or expectations.
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As you begin conducting
research, you should begin to form an opinion as to the answer of your question.
This answer may be what you expected or it may surprise you. Both are acceptable
as long as the answer is an accurate reflection of the information you have
gathered. This answer will be your
tentative thesis. The word tentative is significant since your thesis may need
to be revised if your research doesn’t support your original opinion.
Remember, your goal is not to bend your research to “prove” an invalid
thesis, but to reveal the truth about your topic to the extent that your
research enables you to. That “truth” may change as you learn more about
your topic.
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At this stage, you will
probably not need to take detailed notes, but you will want to document any
significant sources and take steps to ensure that the information will not be
lost. You may want to print Internet sources, photocopy journal articles and
reference materials, and check out books if any of these sources appear to be
especially valuable. Although you will usually be able to find these materials
again if you have noted the bibliographical information (author, title,
publication date and place, etc.) correctly, just one altered website or mis-shelved
volume can make it worth the preventative effort.
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Conduct
more detailed research to confirm, refute, or contradict your thesis.
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Now is the time to get serious
about reading and studying, not just to collect a required number of sources,
but to gain knowledge. Don’t expect the answers you are looking for to
leap off the page. (If they do, you may have a poor topic as explained
earlier.) Instead, look for puzzle pieces of information that you can
assemble into new and interesting ideas.
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At this point, your goal is to
learn so much about your topic that you can answer your research question
convincingly. In order to do so, you will likely gain knowledge that will never
appear in your final draft. That knowledge is not wasted, however. You need to
know more than you write in order to choose the information for your paper
effectively and to give your argument depth.
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At this point you will need to
document your research carefully. There is no one right way to record your
research. Some like traditional note cards, but highlighting significant
passages on your own photocopies and printouts and using Post-it notes on
library materials can also be effective, especially if you use different colors
to distinguish between the various subtopics of your research. Let your
instructor’s requirements and your own preferences be your guide. In all
cases, be sure that you have a record of all the bibliographical information
(author, title, publication date and place, etc.) that your particular style of
documentation requires.
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Write
the paper.
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If you have used a research
question to guide your research and have discovered an answer to that question,
then writing the paper itself is simply a matter of organizing what you have
learned in a way that your reader can benefit from your newly acquired
knowledge.
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The conventions involved in
the presentation of your information may vary between disciplines, so
be sure to read any guidelines from your instructor carefully. Unless
otherwise advised, the general guidelines for effective essay writing
will usually apply, including effective thesis
statements, organization,
transitions, etc.
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These principles may need to
be adapted, however. For example, the general rule to place the thesis at the
end of the introduction still applies, but depending on the length of your
paper, your introduction may be more than one paragraph, and your thesis may
need to be more than one sentence. Use common sense in these decisions. A
20-page research paper is likely to need a longer introduction than a 3-5 page
essay.
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Document
your research.
Research papers also have some
unique demands. The most significant is the need to incorporate sources effectively.
The following guidelines will help you to improve clarity and avoid
plagiarism.
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Choose borrowed material carefully.
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Decide whether to quote, paraphrase, or summarize the
material. |
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Identify the source clearly through appropriate documentation.
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Mark the boundaries of the borrowed material.
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When appropriate, briefly explain the context of the
borrowed information.
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Choose
borrowed material carefully.
Make sure that the information
chosen has a significance in your text other than taking up space or meeting a
required number of sources.
The following are some
possible uses for source material:
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an
interesting quote or story to introduce the topic and prompt reader interest
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evidence
that your research question is significant
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evidence
that directly supports your thesis
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evidence
that indirectly supports your thesis by validating supporting ideas |
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statements
from authorities who support your viewpoint |
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a
representation of the opposing viewpoint |
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evidence
that rebuts the opposing viewpoint
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Decide
whether to quote, paraphrase, or summarize the material.
After deciding to include a piece of information in your
paper, you must decide on the most effective form to present that information.
Remember, however, that all three forms (quotes, paraphrases, and summaries)
must be documented, not just quotes. Use the following guidelines in making your
decisions:
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Quotes
(copying the statement word-for-word) are best if the wording is significant or
difficult to paraphrase.
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Paraphrases
(stating the same idea in your own words) are useful if the original wording is
not memorable or if you need to incorporate the idea more smoothly into your
text.
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Summaries
(briefly stating the main idea) are best for condensing long material.
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Remember that only quotes
allow you to use the original author’s words. When paraphrasing or summarizing
it is not acceptable to cut and paste the original words or phrases into a
rearranged or shortened form. If you use the original phrasing, then you must
use quotation marks.
Identify
the source.
Sometimes this can be done informally
with a signal phrase such as ‘‘according to ________” or "_________________
states,’’ but most academic papers also require formal documentation, even
if you are not using a direct quote. The specific style
of documentation will vary depending on the discipline, so check with your
instructor if the paper is for a class assignment or the instructions for submission
if the paper is for a journal or conference in order to learn the type of documentation
required. Then consult a handbook for specific instructions.
Mark
the boundaries of the borrowed material.
Your reader should always be able to tell which
ideas are borrowed and which are original. This is done easily with quotation
marks if the material is copied word for word. When using paraphrases or
summaries, you may need to rely on word choice. Signal phrases such as
“according to __________” or “__________
states’’ are a good way to indicate the beginning of source material while
documentation techniques such as parenthetical citations or footnotes often
identify the end of cited material. Transitional phrases such as “In contrast,”
“Therefore,” or “This shows,” may
also indicate that you are moving from stating someone else’s idea to applying
that idea in your own argument.
When
appropriate, briefly explain the context of the borrowed information.
This is important if taking
the statement out of context might cause your readers to misunderstand the original
author’s intent. For example, if an author stated an opinion held by others
in order to argue against it, you need to make sure that you don’t quote that
opinion in such a way that it appears that the author supported that opinion.
However, do not confuse the
context of the quote with the meaning. Although you need to make sure that the
accuracy and the relevance of quoted material is clear, explaining the meaning
is usually unnecessary and often insulting to your reader. In other words, don’t
follow a quote with a paraphrase beginning with ‘‘This means _________.”
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